Post-Liberation Bangladesh: A Period of Liberation and Liberalism
Following Bangladesh’s liberation in 1971, the nation experienced a period of liberation and liberalism. Cinematic representations reflected this ethos, with female characters portrayed with newfound agency and autonomy. Films of this era often depicted women as bold and assertive, challenging traditional gender roles and societal norms (Bulbul, 2011). Actresses such as Suchitra Sen and Shabnam became symbols of women’s empowerment, embodying progressive ideals on screen. They were no longer confined to the role of passive objects of male desire but were instead portrayed as active participants in shaping their own destinies. This shift in representation not only mirrored the changing status of women in Bangladeshi society but also contributed to the redefinition of gender roles and relationships. Moreover, the post-liberation era witnessed significant societal shifts towards greater inclusivity and progressivism. The liberation movement had instilled a sense of solidarity and unity among the Bangladeshi people, transcending barriers of class, caste, and gender. This newfound sense of unity fostered a more inclusive and egalitarian ethos, paving the way for greater representation and recognition of marginalized voices in cinema.
Resurgence of Conservative Norms: The Influence of Religious Mandates
With the rise of religious conservatism, fueled by the resurgence of Islam in Bangladeshi politics, a shift occurred in societal attitudes towards female sexuality. Religious mandates began to dictate social norms, imposing strict codes of conduct on women. As religious conservatism gained prominence in Bangladeshi politics, traditional Islamic values and norms began to exert greater influence over social and cultural practices. This shift towards conservatism resulted in the imposition of strict codes of conduct on women, restricting their autonomy and agency in matters of sexuality and personal expression. The impact of this shift on cinema was profound, particularly in its portrayal of women. Filmmakers were increasingly constrained by societal expectations and religious dictates, leading to a regression in the representation of female characters on screen. Women were once again relegated to traditional roles as wives and mothers, with their sexuality strictly regulated and policed by patriarchal norms. This regression not only reinforced existing gender inequalities but also undermined the progress made during the post-liberation era. The transition from liberalism to conservatism in Bangladesh marked a significant turning point in the nation’s socio-political landscape.
The co-option of Islamic gender norms by men to perpetuate patriarchal dominance represents a pervasive and insidious form of oppression that profoundly impacts women’s rights and freedoms in Bangladesh. Rooted in deeply ingrained cultural and religious beliefs, this appropriation of religious values serves to justify and reinforce existing power structures, further entrenching gender inequalities within society. Islamic gender norms, while espousing principles of modesty and respect for traditional roles, are often manipulated by men to maintain their dominance over women. These norms, which prescribe specific roles and behaviors for men and women, are selectively interpreted, and enforced in ways that benefit men while restricting women’s autonomy and agency. Men leverage their privileged position within patriarchal structures to dictate women’s conduct and limit their participation in public life, all under the guise of religious piety and adherence to Islamic principles. The implications of this patriarchal appropriation are far-reaching and profound, impacting women’s rights and freedoms in Bangladesh. By exploiting religious values to justify their dominance, men not only reinforce traditional patriarchal gender roles but also undermine women’s ability to assert themselves and challenge systemic inequalities. Women are systematically marginalized and excluded from decision-making processes, both within the family and in broader societal contexts, perpetuating a cycle of oppression and subjugation. Moreover, the appropriation of Islamic gender norms serves to legitimize and institutionalize gender-based violence and discrimination against women. Acts of domestic violence, honor killings, and forced marriages are often justified and condoned under the pretext of religious obligation, further eroding women’s rights and freedoms, and perpetuating a culture of impunity for perpetrators.
Dichotomy of Expectations: Marriage, Femininity, and Tradition
The resurgence of conservative norms had broader implications for Bangladeshi society as a whole. It stifled dissent and discouraged critical inquiry, fostering an atmosphere of fear and intolerance. Women, in particular, bore the brunt of this conservative backlash, facing increased discrimination, violence, and social ostracization. In the aftermath of the liberation war, Bangladesh initially embraced a spirit of secularism and progressivism, championing ideals of equality, freedom, and social justice. However, this liberal ethos gradually gave way to a resurgence of conservative norms, driven primarily by the growing influence of religious mandates and fundamentalist ideologies. It underscored the fragility of progress and the constant struggle to uphold liberal values in the face of entrenched conservatism.
The dichotomy of expectations placed on women became starkly apparent. On one hand, religious expectations dictated that women adhere to traditional roles, prioritizing marriage, and motherhood above all else. Women are expected to embody ideals of femininity, modesty, and domesticity, conforming to societal norms and expectations. On the other hand, societal pressures discouraged women from embracing their sexuality or expressing desires outside of these prescribed roles. This contradiction created a stifling environment for women, where their autonomy and agency were severely limited. Societal pressures further compound the challenges faced by women in navigating these expectations. From a young age, girls are socialized to prioritize marriage and family life, often at the expense of their own ambitions and aspirations (Upoma, 2021). Women who defy these expectations risk social stigma, ostracization, and even violence, reinforcing the importance of conformity to traditional gender roles. Conversely, there is a growing desire among women, particularly in urban areas, for autonomy and independence. Many women aspire to pursue education, careers, and personal fulfillment before settling down into marriage (Mahboob, 2011). This clash between traditional expectations and modern aspirations creates a profound dichotomy for women in Bangladesh, who must navigate between societal pressures and personal ambitions.
Perpetuation of Patriarchal Structures: Power Dynamics and Oppression
Patriarchal structures further reinforced these oppressive norms. Men, wielding power and authority in both public and private spheres, used traditional gender roles within Islam to justify their dominance over women. This power dynamic perpetuated a cycle of oppression, wherein women were systematically marginalized and disempowered. Cinematic representations often served to glorify and romanticize this patriarchal order, further entrenching its hold on society. Chowdhury (2009) provides a foundational framework for understanding patriarchy within the Bangladeshi context. This theoretical exploration illuminates the multifaceted nature of patriarchal hegemony, emphasizing the role of patriarchal power structures in perpetuating gender inequalities by reinforcing traditional norms and values. Building upon this foundation, Ullah’s (2023) study delves into the sexualization of women in media advertisements, particularly on platforms like Facebook. He highlights how patriarchal ideologies influence media representations, shaping perceptions of women’s sexuality and agency. The commodification of women’s bodies in these advertisements not only reinforces traditional gender roles but also perpetuates harmful stereotypes regarding women’s roles and behaviors. Expanding on Ullah’s findings, Sadia et al. (2022) investigate the effects of media advertisement representation of women’s body image on violence against women in Bangladesh. Their research underscores the correlation between media portrayal, societal attitudes towards women’s bodies, and the prevalence of gender-based violence. The objectification and idealization of women’s bodies in media contribute to the normalization of violence against women, perpetuating a cycle of abuse rooted in patriarchal norms.
Village Expectations versus Urban Realities: Socio-Cultural Dynamics
In Bangladesh, the expectations placed on women vary notably between rural and urban contexts, emblematic of the nation’s multifaceted socio-cultural milieu. Rural settings often uphold entrenched traditional gender roles, where women are primarily assigned domestic responsibilities and marriage is prioritized (Bulbul, 2011). Even cinema halls served as spaces where these tensions were played out, reflecting and shaping societal perceptions of female sexuality, and women don’t feel comfortable to go. Conversely, urban areas offer greater scope for women’s autonomy and empowerment, with women actively challenging societal norms and advocating for gender equality (Hoque et al., 2017). However, cinematic portrayals also reflect deeply ingrained biases: films often depict educated urban women as lacking in traditional values, disrespectful towards elders, and more inclined to live as “spoiled brats”. This not only reinforces regressive stereotypes but also demotivates women from pursuing education, perpetuating a cycle where patriarchal society exploits women’s potential and restricts their agency.
Cinema Halls: Cultural Spaces and Portrayals of Female Sexuality
Cinema serves as both a reflection and a perpetuator of these conflicting expectations. In many Bangladeshi films, female characters are often portrayed as embodiments of traditional femininity, whose ultimate goal is to find fulfillment through marriage and family life (Rahman, & Zannat, 2021). These portrayals reinforce societal norms and expectations, presenting marriage as the ultimate marker of success and happiness for women. At the same time, there has been a gradual shift in cinematic representations, with some films challenging traditional gender roles and celebrating female agency and independence (Hoque et al., 2017). These films offer alternative narratives that empower women to pursue their dreams and aspirations outside of the confines of traditional expectations. However, such representations remain the exception rather than the norm, highlighting the enduring influence of patriarchal values in Bangladeshi cinema.
In Bangladesh, the expectations placed on women vary notably between rural and urban contexts, emblematic of the nation’s multifaceted socio-cultural milieu. Rural settings often uphold entrenched traditional gender roles, where women are primarily assigned domestic responsibilities and marriage is prioritized (Bulbul, 2011). Even cinema halls served as spaces where these tensions were played out, reflecting and shaping societal perceptions of female sexuality, and women don’t feel comfortable to go. Conversely, urban areas offer greater scope for women’s autonomy and empowerment, with women actively challenging societal norms and advocating for gender equality (Hoque et al., 2017). However, cinematic portrayals also reflect deeply ingrained biases: films often depict educated urban women as lacking in traditional values, disrespectful towards elders, and more inclined to live as “spoiled brats”. This not only reinforces regressive stereotypes but also demotivates women from pursuing education, perpetuating a cycle where patriarchal society exploits women’s potential and restricts their agency.
Taboos and the Lack of Sex Education in Bangladesh
Scholarly contributions further enrich our understanding of gender dynamics in Bangladeshi media. Khan’s (2018) Foucauldian discourse analysis reveals the scarcity of sex education and knowledge among young men in Bangladesh. Kapur (1996) explores power dynamics inherent in media discourse, shedding light on the ways in which commercial filmmakers exploit societal norms for financial gain. Studies by Shawon, Rahman, and Zannat (2021) illuminate how media perpetuates gender stereotypes and sexual objectification, reinforcing traditional notions of femininity and masculinity. Othondrila (2014) provides historical insights into the representation of women in electronic visual media, emphasizing the importance of critically analyzing media representations to understand broader social and cultural implications. These scholarly endeavors collectively contribute to a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between patriarchy, media representation, and gender dynamics in Bangladesh.
Despite efforts to embrace liberal ideals, societal norms often constrain individuals, leading to frustration and a desire for freedom. Cultural and religious factors influence perceptions of marriage and sexuality, with traditional practices imposing restrictions on women’s autonomy and agency. These personal anecdotes align with scholarly research, illustrating the complex interplay between tradition, modernity, and gender dynamics in Bangladeshi society (Jebin, 2023; Shaolee, 2011; Anika, 2021). While progress has been made in challenging traditional gender roles, significant barriers remain. Adnan (2020) raises concerns about stereotypical portrayals and the perpetuation of traditional gender roles in media representations. Mahboob (2011) highlights disparities in media representations of gender between Australia and Bangladesh, emphasizing the need for more inclusive and gender-sensitive media. Makbul’s (2020) rhetorical analysis sheds light on the plight of sex workers in Bangladesh, revealing systemic injustices perpetuated by patriarchal structures. Critics argue that mainstream media often reduces women to passive and domestic beings, reinforcing patriarchal norms and limiting their agency (Haq, 2011). Despite efforts to represent marginalized gender identities, transgender characters are often sensationalized or misrepresented in mainstream cinema (Abdullah, 2018).
The Paradox of Sexualization: Condom Advertisements and Societal Norms
While societal norms discouraged women from expressing their sexuality, advertisements often sexualized women to sell products. Condom ads, in particular, depicted women in provocative poses, reinforcing the objectification of female bodies. This contradiction underscored the complexity of societal attitudes towards female sexuality, wherein women were simultaneously desired and disempowered. While these advertisements aim to promote safe sexual practices, they frequently resort to objectifying and hypersexualizing women, thereby perpetuating harmful stereotypes and undermining women’s agency and empowerment. However, the way women are portrayed in these ads often contradicts societal expectations and norms regarding female modesty and chastity, reducing them to mere objects of male desire and fantasy. This stark disparity between the intended message of sexual health awareness and the objectification of women underscores the complex interplay between commercial interests and societal norms.
By perpetuating narrow and unrealistic standards of beauty and sexuality, condom ads contribute to the normalization of objectification and sexualization of women in society. This not only undermines women’s autonomy over their bodies but also reinforces patriarchal notions of male dominance and female subservience. Moreover, these representations can have detrimental effects on women’s self-esteem and mental well-being, leading to feelings of inadequacy and self-objectification. Furthermore, it creates a dissonance that further marginalizes women and restricts their ability to assert themselves in various spheres of life. Women who do not conform to these unrealistic standards face stigma and discrimination, further perpetuating gender inequalities and hindering progress towards gender equality.
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Impact on Women: Victimization and Economic Disempowerment
Financial stability often serves as a gateway to freedom for women, providing them with the means to pursue their aspirations and exercise greater control over their lives. Women who were economically independent had greater freedom to express themselves and resist oppressive structures. However, financial independence remained elusive for many women, particularly those from marginalized communities. Economic disparities further exacerbated existing inequalities, perpetuating a cycle of disempowerment for women across Bangladesh. Women who are economically empowered are better positioned to make decisions about their education, career, and personal relationships without being financially dependent on others. This independence fosters a sense of self-reliance and confidence, enabling women to assert their rights and voice their opinions more freely. And this is how the ironical loop of women exploitation goes on and on for not having the ability to improve their situation. Even if the women of urban area get the opportunity, they don’t stay in the country and go abroad to fulfill their wishes, and most of them don’t come back to country to improve the situation.
One of the most pervasive consequences of patriarchal structures is the victimization of women, manifested in various forms of gender-based violence including domestic abuse, sexual harassment, and honor-based violence. These acts of violence are often perpetrated with impunity, reinforced by societal attitudes that condone and normalize such behavior. Women are frequently silenced, marginalized, and denied justice, further perpetuating a culture of violence and oppression. Moreover, patriarchal structures contribute to economic disempowerment, limiting women’s access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making power. Women in Bangladesh face significant disparities in employment, education, and income, exacerbated by discriminatory practices and cultural norms that prioritize male advancement. Economic disempowerment not only undermines women’s autonomy and agency but also perpetuates cycles of poverty and dependence, trapping women in situations of vulnerability and exploitation (Chowdhury, 2009).
